1. The research paper is a long documented essay based on a thorough examination of a topic and supported by explanations and by both references to and quotations from sources.2. The research paper is no more difficult than other writing assignments if you select a good topic, use a systematic approach, and do not get behind with your work.3. Asystematic approach involves these then steps:
Select a topic
Find sources
List sources.
Take notes.
Refine your thesis and outline
Write your first draft
Revise your first draft
Prepare your Works Cited section
Write your final draft.
Submit required materials.
4. Your library almost certainly mixes traditional and electronic indexes and sources; you should become familiar with them.
5. MLA styple for works cited differs from that used in traditional and electronic indexes.
6. You can avoid plagiarism by giving credit when you borrow someone else's words or ideas.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
2011年12月1日星期四
Chapter 16 Writing the Research Paper
The Research Paper Defined
The research paper is a long documented essay based on a thorough examination of your topic and supported by your explanations and by both references to and quotations from your sources. The traditional research paper in the style of the Modern Language Association, typically called MLA style, includes a title page (sometimes omitted), a thesis and an outline, a documented essay (text), and a list of sources (called "Works Cited," referring to the works used specifically in the essay).
Ten Steps to Writing a Research Paper
Step 1 Select a Topic
Select a topic and make a scratch outline. Then construct a thesis as you did for writing an essay by choosing what you intend to write about (subject) and by deciding how you will limit or focus your subject (treatment). Your purpose will be wither to inform (explain) or to persuade (argue).1. Your topic should interest you and be appropriate in subject and scope for your assignment.
2. Your topic should be researchable through library and other relevant sources, such as the Internet. Avoid topics that are too subjective or are so new that good source material is not available.
Step 2 find Sources
Find sources for your investigation. With your topic and its divisions in mind, use the resources and the electronic databases available in your college library and on the Internet to identify books, articles, and other materials pertaining to your topic. The list of these items, called bibliography, should be prepared on cards in the form appropriate for your assignment.
Books
Today most academic and municipal libraries provide information about books on online computer terminals, with databases accessible by author, title, subject, or other key words.
Printed Material Other Than Books
For the typical college research paper, the main printed nonbook sources are periodicals, such as newspapers, magazines, and journals.
Computerized Indexes and Other Online Services
Computerized indexes, such as Infor Trac, Periodical Abstracts, and Newspaper Abstracts Ondisc, can be accessed in basically the same way as the online book catalogs, using key words and word combinations.
Step 3 List Sources
List tentative sources in a preliminary bibliography
Bibliography and Works Cited, MLA Style
You will list source material in two phase of your research paper project: the preliminary bibliography and the Works Cited list. The MLA research paper form is commonly used for both the preliminary bibliography and the list of works cited. This format is unlike the format used in catalogs and indexes.
Step 4 Take Notes
Take notes in an organized fashion. Resist the temptation to write down everything that interests you. Instead, take notes that pertain to divisions of your topic as stated in your thesis or scratch outline. Locate, read, and take notes on the sources listed in your preliminary bibliography. Some of these sources need to be printed out from electronic databases or from the Internet, some photocopied, and some checked out. Your notes will usually be on cards, with each card indicating key pieces of the information:
A. Division of topic (usually Roman-numeral part of your scratch outline or the divisions of your thesis)
B. Identification of topic (by author's last name or title of piece)
C. Location of material (usually by page number)
D. Text of statement as originally worded (with quotation marks; editorial comments in brackets), summarized or paragraph (in student's own words, without quotation marks), and statement of relevance of material, if possible.
Step 5 Reine Your Thesis and Outline
Refine your thesis statement and outline to reflect more precisely what you intend to write.
Step 6 Write Your First Draft
Referring to your thesis, outline, and note cards keyed to your outline, write the first draft of your research paper.
Plagiarism: Careful attention to the rules of documentation will help you avoid plagiarism, the unacknowledged use of someone else's words or idea. You can avoid plagiarism by giving credit when you borrow someone else;s words or ideas.
Step 7 Revise Your First Draft
Evaluate your first draft and amend it as needed (perhaps researching an area not well covered for additional support material and adding or deleting sections of your outline to reflect the way your paper has grown).
Use the writing process guidelines as you would in writing any other essay.
Write and then revise your paper as many times as necessary for coherence, language (usage, tone, and diction), unity, emphasis, support, and sentences (CLUESS).
Correct problems in fundamentals such as capitalization, omissions, punctuation, and spelling (COPS). Before writing the final draft, read your paper aloud to discover any errors or awkward-sounding sentence structure.
Step 8 Prepare Your Works Cited Section
Using the same form as in the preliminary bibliography, prepare a Works Cited section (a list of works you have referred to or quoted and identified parenthetically in the text).
Step 9 Write your final Draft
Write the final version of your research paper with care for effective writing and accurate documentation. The final draft will probably include the following parts:
1. Title pager (sometimes omitted)
2. Thesis and outline (topical or sentence, as directed)
3. Documented essay (text)
4. List of sources used (Work Cited)
Step 10 Submit Required Materials
Submit your research paper with any preliminary material required by your instructor. Consider using a checklist to make sure you have fulfilled all requirements.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
The research paper is a long documented essay based on a thorough examination of your topic and supported by your explanations and by both references to and quotations from your sources. The traditional research paper in the style of the Modern Language Association, typically called MLA style, includes a title page (sometimes omitted), a thesis and an outline, a documented essay (text), and a list of sources (called "Works Cited," referring to the works used specifically in the essay).
Ten Steps to Writing a Research Paper
Step 1 Select a Topic
Select a topic and make a scratch outline. Then construct a thesis as you did for writing an essay by choosing what you intend to write about (subject) and by deciding how you will limit or focus your subject (treatment). Your purpose will be wither to inform (explain) or to persuade (argue).1. Your topic should interest you and be appropriate in subject and scope for your assignment.
2. Your topic should be researchable through library and other relevant sources, such as the Internet. Avoid topics that are too subjective or are so new that good source material is not available.
Step 2 find Sources
Find sources for your investigation. With your topic and its divisions in mind, use the resources and the electronic databases available in your college library and on the Internet to identify books, articles, and other materials pertaining to your topic. The list of these items, called bibliography, should be prepared on cards in the form appropriate for your assignment.
Books
Today most academic and municipal libraries provide information about books on online computer terminals, with databases accessible by author, title, subject, or other key words.
Printed Material Other Than Books
For the typical college research paper, the main printed nonbook sources are periodicals, such as newspapers, magazines, and journals.
Computerized Indexes and Other Online Services
Computerized indexes, such as Infor Trac, Periodical Abstracts, and Newspaper Abstracts Ondisc, can be accessed in basically the same way as the online book catalogs, using key words and word combinations.
Step 3 List Sources
List tentative sources in a preliminary bibliography
Bibliography and Works Cited, MLA Style
You will list source material in two phase of your research paper project: the preliminary bibliography and the Works Cited list. The MLA research paper form is commonly used for both the preliminary bibliography and the list of works cited. This format is unlike the format used in catalogs and indexes.
Step 4 Take Notes
Take notes in an organized fashion. Resist the temptation to write down everything that interests you. Instead, take notes that pertain to divisions of your topic as stated in your thesis or scratch outline. Locate, read, and take notes on the sources listed in your preliminary bibliography. Some of these sources need to be printed out from electronic databases or from the Internet, some photocopied, and some checked out. Your notes will usually be on cards, with each card indicating key pieces of the information:
A. Division of topic (usually Roman-numeral part of your scratch outline or the divisions of your thesis)
B. Identification of topic (by author's last name or title of piece)
C. Location of material (usually by page number)
D. Text of statement as originally worded (with quotation marks; editorial comments in brackets), summarized or paragraph (in student's own words, without quotation marks), and statement of relevance of material, if possible.
Step 5 Reine Your Thesis and Outline
Refine your thesis statement and outline to reflect more precisely what you intend to write.
Step 6 Write Your First Draft
Referring to your thesis, outline, and note cards keyed to your outline, write the first draft of your research paper.
Plagiarism: Careful attention to the rules of documentation will help you avoid plagiarism, the unacknowledged use of someone else's words or idea. You can avoid plagiarism by giving credit when you borrow someone else;s words or ideas.
Step 7 Revise Your First Draft
Evaluate your first draft and amend it as needed (perhaps researching an area not well covered for additional support material and adding or deleting sections of your outline to reflect the way your paper has grown).
Use the writing process guidelines as you would in writing any other essay.
Write and then revise your paper as many times as necessary for coherence, language (usage, tone, and diction), unity, emphasis, support, and sentences (CLUESS).
Correct problems in fundamentals such as capitalization, omissions, punctuation, and spelling (COPS). Before writing the final draft, read your paper aloud to discover any errors or awkward-sounding sentence structure.
Step 8 Prepare Your Works Cited Section
Using the same form as in the preliminary bibliography, prepare a Works Cited section (a list of works you have referred to or quoted and identified parenthetically in the text).
Step 9 Write your final Draft
Write the final version of your research paper with care for effective writing and accurate documentation. The final draft will probably include the following parts:
1. Title pager (sometimes omitted)
2. Thesis and outline (topical or sentence, as directed)
3. Documented essay (text)
4. List of sources used (Work Cited)
Step 10 Submit Required Materials
Submit your research paper with any preliminary material required by your instructor. Consider using a checklist to make sure you have fulfilled all requirements.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Writer's Guidelines: Argument
1. Ask yourself the following question; then consider which parts of th persuasive statement or argument you should include in your essay.Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions?Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?
2.The basic pattern of a paragraph or an essay of persuaion or argument is likely to be in this form:Proposition (the topic sentence of the paragraph or the thesis of the essay)
I. Support 1
II. Support 2
III. Support 3
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
2.The basic pattern of a paragraph or an essay of persuaion or argument is likely to be in this form:Proposition (the topic sentence of the paragraph or the thesis of the essay)
I. Support 1
II. Support 2
III. Support 3
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Chapter 15 Argument: Writing to Persuade
Persuasion is a broad term. When we persuade, we try to influence people to think in a certain way or to do something.
Argument is persuasion on a topic about which reasonable people disagree. Argument involves controversy. Whereas exercising appropriately is probably not controversial because reasonable people do not dispute the idea, an issue such as gun control is. In this chapter, we will be concerned mainly with the kind of persuasion that involves argument.
Techniques for Developing Argument
Statements of argument are informal or formal. An opinion column in a newspaper is likely to have little set structure, whereas an argument in college writing is likely to be tightly organized. Nervertheless, the opinion column and the college paper have much in common. Both provide a proposition, which is the main point of the argument, and both provide pupport, which is the evidence of the reasons that back up the proposition.
For a well – structured college paragraph or essay, an organizing plan is desirable. Consider these elements when you write an argument, and ask yourself the following question as you develop your ideas:
Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions? If, for example, I am in favor of using animals for scientific experimentation, am I concerned only with medical experiments or with any use, including experiments for the cosmetic industry?
Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?
Your Audience
Your audience may be uninformed, informed, biased, hostile, receptive, apathetic, sympathetic, and empathetic – any one, several, or something else. The point is that you should be acutely concerned about who will read your composition. If your readers are likely to be uninformed about the social and historical background of the issue, then you need to set the issue in context. The discussion of the background should lead to the problem for which you have a proposition or solution. If your readers are likely to be biased or even hostile to your view, take special care to refute the opposing side in a thoughtful, incisive way that does not further antagonize them. If your readers are already receptive and perhaps even sympathetic, and you wish to move them to action, then you might appeal to their conscience and the need for their commitment.
Kinds of Evidence
In addition to sound reasoning generally, you can use these kinds of evidence: facts, examples, statistics, and authorities.
First, you can offer facts. Some facts are readily accepted because they are general knowledge – you and your reader know them to be true, because they can be or have been verified. Other “facts” are based on personal observation and are reported in various publications but may be false or questionable.
Second, you can cite examples. Keep in mind that you must present a sufficient number of examples and that the examples must be relevant.
Avoid presenting a long list of figures; select statistics carefully and relate them to things familiar to your reader.
Third, you can present statistics. Statistics are numerical facts and data that are classified and tabulated to present significant information about a given subject.
Fourth, you can cite evidence from, and opinions of, authorities. Most readers accept facts from recognized, reliable source – governmental publication, standard reference works, and books and periodicals published by established firms. In addition, they will accept evidence and opinions from individuals who, because of their knowledge and experience, are recognized as experts.
In using authoritative source as proof, keep these points in mind:
Select authorities who are generally recognized as experts in their field.
Use authorities who qualify in the field pertinent to your argument.
Select authorities whose views are not biased.
Try to use several authorities.
Identify the authority's credentials clearly in your essay.
Logical Fallacies
Certain thought patterns are inherently flawed. Commonly called logical fallacies, these thought patterns are of primary concern in argument. You should be able to identify them in the arguments of those on the other side of an issue, and you should be sure to avoid them in your own writing.
Eight kinds of logical fallacies are very common.
1. Post hoc,ergo proter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”): When one event precedes another in time, the first is assumed to cause the other. “If A comes before B, then A must be causing B.”
2. False analogy: False analogies ignore differences and stress similarities, often in an attempt to prove something.
3. Hasty generalization: This is a conclusion based on two few reliable instances.
4. False dilemma: This fallacy presents the readers with only two alternatives from which to choose. The solution may lie elsewhere.
5. Argumentum ad hominem: (argument against the person): This is the practice of abusing and discrediting your opponent rather than keeping to the main issues of that argument.
6. Begging the question: The fallacy assumes something is true without proof. It occurs when a thinker assumes a position is right before offering proof.
7. Circular reasoning: This thought pattern asserts proof that is no more than a repetition of the initial assertion.
8. Non sequitur: This fallacy draws a conclusion that does not follow.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Argument is persuasion on a topic about which reasonable people disagree. Argument involves controversy. Whereas exercising appropriately is probably not controversial because reasonable people do not dispute the idea, an issue such as gun control is. In this chapter, we will be concerned mainly with the kind of persuasion that involves argument.
Techniques for Developing Argument
Statements of argument are informal or formal. An opinion column in a newspaper is likely to have little set structure, whereas an argument in college writing is likely to be tightly organized. Nervertheless, the opinion column and the college paper have much in common. Both provide a proposition, which is the main point of the argument, and both provide pupport, which is the evidence of the reasons that back up the proposition.
For a well – structured college paragraph or essay, an organizing plan is desirable. Consider these elements when you write an argument, and ask yourself the following question as you develop your ideas:
Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions? If, for example, I am in favor of using animals for scientific experimentation, am I concerned only with medical experiments or with any use, including experiments for the cosmetic industry?
Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?
Your Audience
Your audience may be uninformed, informed, biased, hostile, receptive, apathetic, sympathetic, and empathetic – any one, several, or something else. The point is that you should be acutely concerned about who will read your composition. If your readers are likely to be uninformed about the social and historical background of the issue, then you need to set the issue in context. The discussion of the background should lead to the problem for which you have a proposition or solution. If your readers are likely to be biased or even hostile to your view, take special care to refute the opposing side in a thoughtful, incisive way that does not further antagonize them. If your readers are already receptive and perhaps even sympathetic, and you wish to move them to action, then you might appeal to their conscience and the need for their commitment.
Kinds of Evidence
In addition to sound reasoning generally, you can use these kinds of evidence: facts, examples, statistics, and authorities.
First, you can offer facts. Some facts are readily accepted because they are general knowledge – you and your reader know them to be true, because they can be or have been verified. Other “facts” are based on personal observation and are reported in various publications but may be false or questionable.
Second, you can cite examples. Keep in mind that you must present a sufficient number of examples and that the examples must be relevant.
Avoid presenting a long list of figures; select statistics carefully and relate them to things familiar to your reader.
Third, you can present statistics. Statistics are numerical facts and data that are classified and tabulated to present significant information about a given subject.
Fourth, you can cite evidence from, and opinions of, authorities. Most readers accept facts from recognized, reliable source – governmental publication, standard reference works, and books and periodicals published by established firms. In addition, they will accept evidence and opinions from individuals who, because of their knowledge and experience, are recognized as experts.
In using authoritative source as proof, keep these points in mind:
Select authorities who are generally recognized as experts in their field.
Use authorities who qualify in the field pertinent to your argument.
Select authorities whose views are not biased.
Try to use several authorities.
Identify the authority's credentials clearly in your essay.
Logical Fallacies
Certain thought patterns are inherently flawed. Commonly called logical fallacies, these thought patterns are of primary concern in argument. You should be able to identify them in the arguments of those on the other side of an issue, and you should be sure to avoid them in your own writing.
Eight kinds of logical fallacies are very common.
1. Post hoc,ergo proter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”): When one event precedes another in time, the first is assumed to cause the other. “If A comes before B, then A must be causing B.”
2. False analogy: False analogies ignore differences and stress similarities, often in an attempt to prove something.
3. Hasty generalization: This is a conclusion based on two few reliable instances.
4. False dilemma: This fallacy presents the readers with only two alternatives from which to choose. The solution may lie elsewhere.
5. Argumentum ad hominem: (argument against the person): This is the practice of abusing and discrediting your opponent rather than keeping to the main issues of that argument.
6. Begging the question: The fallacy assumes something is true without proof. It occurs when a thinker assumes a position is right before offering proof.
7. Circular reasoning: This thought pattern asserts proof that is no more than a repetition of the initial assertion.
8. Non sequitur: This fallacy draws a conclusion that does not follow.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Writer's Guidelines: Definition
Simple Definition1. No two words have exactly the same meaning2. Serveral forms of simple definitions can be blended into your discussion: basic dictionary, synonyms, direct explanations, indirect explanations, and analytical definitions.3. For a formal or an analytical defintion, specify the term, class, and characteristic(s).4. Avoid "is where" and "is when" definitions, circualr definition, and the use of words in the defintion than the word being defined.Extended Definition1. Use clustering to consider other patterns of development that may be used to define your term.2. The organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on the subject material. You may use just one pattern of development for theoverall organization.3. Consider these ways of introducing a definition: with a question, with a statement of what it is not, with a statement of what is originally meant, or with a discussiton of why a clear definition is important. You may use a combination of these ways before you continuse with your definition.4. Whether you personalize a definition depends on your purpose and your audience. Your instructor may ask you to write about a word within the context of your own experience or to write about it from a detached, clinical viewpoint.Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Chapter 14 Definition: Clarifying Terms
Writing Definition
Most definitions are short; they consist of a synonym (a word or phrase that has about the same meaning as the term to be defined), a phrase, or a sentence. For example, we might say that a hypocrite is a person "professing beliefs or virtues he or she does not possess." Terms can also be defined by etymology, or word history. Hypocrite once meant "actor" (hypocrites) in Greek because an actor was pretending to be someone else. We may find this information interesting and revealing, but the history of a word may be of no use because the meaning has changed drastically over the years. Sometimes definitions occupy a paragraph or an entire essay. The short definition is called a simple definition; the longer one is known as an extended definition.
Techniques for Writing Simple Definitions
If you want to define a term without being abrupt and mechanical, you have several alternatives. All of the following techniques allow you to blend the definition into your developing thought.
Basic dictionary meaning.
Synonyms.
Direct explanation.
Indirect explanation.
Analytical or formal definition.
Techniques for Writing Extended Definitions
Essay of definition can take many forms. Among the more common techniques for writing a paragraph or short essay of definition are the patterns we have worked with in previous chapters. Consider each of those patterns when you need to writ an extended definition. For a particular term, some forms will be more useful than others; use the pattern of patterns that best fulfill your purpose.
Each of the following questions takes a pattern of writing and directs it toward definition:
Narration: Can I tell an anecdote or a story to define this subject (such as jerk, humanitarian, or citizen)? This form may overlap with description and exemplification.
Description: Can I describe this subject (such as a whale or the moon)?
Exemplification: Can I give examples of this subject (such as naming individual, to provide examples of actors, diplomats, or satirists)?
Analysis by division: Can I divided this subject into parts (for example, the parts of a heart, a cell, or a carburetor)?
Process analysis: Can I define this subject (such as lasagna, tornado, hurricane, blood pressure, or any number of scientific processes) by describing how to make it or how it occurs? (Common to the methodology of communicating in science, this approach is sometimes called the "operational definition.")
Cause and effect: Can I define this subject (such as a flood, a drought, a riot, or a cancer) by its causes and effects?
Classification: Can I group this subject (such as kinds of families, cultures, religions, or governments) into classes?
Comparison and contrast: Can I define this subject (such as extremist or patriot) by explaining what it is similar to and different from? If you are defining orangutan to a person who has never heard of one but if familiar with the gorilla, then you could make comparison-and-contrast statements. If you want to define patriot, then you might want to stress what it is not (the contrast) before you explain what it is: A patriot is not a one-dimensional flag waver, not someone who hates "foreigners" because America is always right and always best.
When you use prewriting strategies of develop ideas for a definition, you can effectively consider all the patterns you have learned by using modified clustering form. Put a double bubble around the subject to be defined. Then put a single bubble around each pattern and add appropriate words. If a pattern is not relevant to what you are defining, leave it blank. If you want to expand your range of information, you could add a bubble for a simple dictionary definition and another for an etymological definition.
Order
The organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on the subject material, you may use just one pattern of development for the overall sequence. If so, you would use the principles of organization discussed in previous chapters.Introduction and development.
Consider these ways of introducing definition.
With a question, with a statement of what it is not, with a statement of what it originally meant, or with a discussion of why a clear definition is important. You may use a combination of these ways or all of them before you continue with your definition.
Development is likely to represent one or more of patterns of narration, description, exposition (with its own subdivisions), and argumentation.
Whether you personalize a definition depends on your purpose and your audience. Your instructor may ask you to write about a word from a subjective or an objective viewpoint.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Most definitions are short; they consist of a synonym (a word or phrase that has about the same meaning as the term to be defined), a phrase, or a sentence. For example, we might say that a hypocrite is a person "professing beliefs or virtues he or she does not possess." Terms can also be defined by etymology, or word history. Hypocrite once meant "actor" (hypocrites) in Greek because an actor was pretending to be someone else. We may find this information interesting and revealing, but the history of a word may be of no use because the meaning has changed drastically over the years. Sometimes definitions occupy a paragraph or an entire essay. The short definition is called a simple definition; the longer one is known as an extended definition.
Techniques for Writing Simple Definitions
If you want to define a term without being abrupt and mechanical, you have several alternatives. All of the following techniques allow you to blend the definition into your developing thought.
Basic dictionary meaning.
Synonyms.
Direct explanation.
Indirect explanation.
Analytical or formal definition.
Techniques for Writing Extended Definitions
Essay of definition can take many forms. Among the more common techniques for writing a paragraph or short essay of definition are the patterns we have worked with in previous chapters. Consider each of those patterns when you need to writ an extended definition. For a particular term, some forms will be more useful than others; use the pattern of patterns that best fulfill your purpose.
Each of the following questions takes a pattern of writing and directs it toward definition:
Narration: Can I tell an anecdote or a story to define this subject (such as jerk, humanitarian, or citizen)? This form may overlap with description and exemplification.
Description: Can I describe this subject (such as a whale or the moon)?
Exemplification: Can I give examples of this subject (such as naming individual, to provide examples of actors, diplomats, or satirists)?
Analysis by division: Can I divided this subject into parts (for example, the parts of a heart, a cell, or a carburetor)?
Process analysis: Can I define this subject (such as lasagna, tornado, hurricane, blood pressure, or any number of scientific processes) by describing how to make it or how it occurs? (Common to the methodology of communicating in science, this approach is sometimes called the "operational definition.")
Cause and effect: Can I define this subject (such as a flood, a drought, a riot, or a cancer) by its causes and effects?
Classification: Can I group this subject (such as kinds of families, cultures, religions, or governments) into classes?
Comparison and contrast: Can I define this subject (such as extremist or patriot) by explaining what it is similar to and different from? If you are defining orangutan to a person who has never heard of one but if familiar with the gorilla, then you could make comparison-and-contrast statements. If you want to define patriot, then you might want to stress what it is not (the contrast) before you explain what it is: A patriot is not a one-dimensional flag waver, not someone who hates "foreigners" because America is always right and always best.
When you use prewriting strategies of develop ideas for a definition, you can effectively consider all the patterns you have learned by using modified clustering form. Put a double bubble around the subject to be defined. Then put a single bubble around each pattern and add appropriate words. If a pattern is not relevant to what you are defining, leave it blank. If you want to expand your range of information, you could add a bubble for a simple dictionary definition and another for an etymological definition.
Order
The organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on the subject material, you may use just one pattern of development for the overall sequence. If so, you would use the principles of organization discussed in previous chapters.Introduction and development.
Consider these ways of introducing definition.
With a question, with a statement of what it is not, with a statement of what it originally meant, or with a discussion of why a clear definition is important. You may use a combination of these ways or all of them before you continue with your definition.
Development is likely to represent one or more of patterns of narration, description, exposition (with its own subdivisions), and argumentation.
Whether you personalize a definition depends on your purpose and your audience. Your instructor may ask you to write about a word from a subjective or an objective viewpoint.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Writer's Guidelines: Comparison and Contrast
1. Purpose: During the exploration of your topic, define your purpose clearly.
Decide whether you are writing a work that is primarily comparison, primarily contrast, or balanced.
Determine whether you main purpose is to inform or to persuade.
2. Points
Indicate your points of comparison or contrast, perhaps by listing.
Eliminate irrelevant points.
3. Patterns
Select the subject-by-subject or the point -by-point pattern after considering your topic and planned treatment. The point-by point pattern is usually preferred in essays. Only in long papers is there likely to be a mixture of patterns.
Compose an outline reflecting the pattern you select.
Use this basic outline for the subject-by-subject pattern:
I. Subject XA. Point 1B. Point 2
II. Subject YA. Point 1B. Point 2
Use this basic outline for the point-by-point pattern:
I. Point 1A. Subject XB. Subject Y
II. Point 2A. Subject XB. Subject Y
4. Presentation
Give each point more or less equal treatment. Attention to each part of the outline will usually ensure balanced development.
Use transitional words and phrases to indicate comparison and contrast and to establish coherence.
Use a carefully stated topic sentence for a paragraph and a clear thesis for an essay. Each developmental paragraph should have a topic sentence broad enough to embrace its content.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
Decide whether you are writing a work that is primarily comparison, primarily contrast, or balanced.
Determine whether you main purpose is to inform or to persuade.
2. Points
Indicate your points of comparison or contrast, perhaps by listing.
Eliminate irrelevant points.
3. Patterns
Select the subject-by-subject or the point -by-point pattern after considering your topic and planned treatment. The point-by point pattern is usually preferred in essays. Only in long papers is there likely to be a mixture of patterns.
Compose an outline reflecting the pattern you select.
Use this basic outline for the subject-by-subject pattern:
I. Subject XA. Point 1B. Point 2
II. Subject YA. Point 1B. Point 2
Use this basic outline for the point-by-point pattern:
I. Point 1A. Subject XB. Subject Y
II. Point 2A. Subject XB. Subject Y
4. Presentation
Give each point more or less equal treatment. Attention to each part of the outline will usually ensure balanced development.
Use transitional words and phrases to indicate comparison and contrast and to establish coherence.
Use a carefully stated topic sentence for a paragraph and a clear thesis for an essay. Each developmental paragraph should have a topic sentence broad enough to embrace its content.
Source:Brandon, Lee. Brandon, Kelly. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings, 11th Edition. Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2011
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